COLONIAL AMERICA
Early Pilgrims settling in New England in the 17th Century faced many hardships. One result of the adversity was the frequency of funerals: 40 percent of the children never reached adulthood, and one in ten children died in their first year of life. Half of the Pilgrims arriving died during their first year. Deaths were attributed to disease, lack of food, exposure, and attacks by native Americans.In the 1600s, the Puritans’ beliefs prevented the lavish funerals that became more common in the 1700s and later the Victorian Era.
Funerals took place in the deceased’s home, with townswomen responsible for cleaning, dressing, and laying out the body. Deceased were often buried in shrouds (robes) rather than clothing, as it was laborious to make and at significant expense.
While the funerals were silent and somber events, the night before burial, most Puritan families hosted wakes or visitations—a time to watch over the deceased body to ensure the deceased did not ‘wake’ up. Sumptuous food and free-flowing liquor also characterized wakes.
Mourning Period
- Widows: Mourned for two-and-a-half years. Some chose to wear black for the rest of their lives.
- Mothers: Mourned a child for one year.
- Children: Mourned a parent for one year.
- Siblings: Six months.
- Grandparents: Six to nine months.
- Aunts or Uncles: Three months.
- Widowers: Up to six months, often less.
Required Mourning Attire
The wearing of black clothing dates back to the Roman Empire when the mourning toga was made of dark-colored wool. Clothing was plain and usually a dull black, made from crepe or wool.
Women had different clothing based on the stages of mourning:
- Deep Mourning: Time immediately after the death to one year—clothing included black dresses, bonnets with no trim, black veils, gloves, shoes, and accessories.
- Ordinary Mourning: The second year—women could add white trim to dresses and abandon the veil.
- Light Mourning: The last six months—women could wear lilac, purple, and gray.
Men wore black suits normally made of wool, with black bands on theirs arms and hats.
In wealthier families, servants also dressed in mourning clothes and accessories, made especially for the event, while those in the lower classes dyed their everyday clothing to wear as mourning attire.
Funerals
Perhaps in defiance of Catholic rituals, Puritans’ funerals were silent with no eulogies or sermons. Mourners would affix verses or messages to the coffin’s platform and coffins were simple. Gravestones were simple slabs of concrete with inscriptions with austere writing.
Amish Funeral/Burial Practices
The first Amish settlers arrived in the early 1700s, settling in Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana. For more than 200 years, Amish families have made Lancaster County in Pennsylvania their home. However, because little has changed over the centuries in the Amish communities, the funeral and burial practices remain similar to when Amish first settled in America.
Following a death, the entire community participates in preparing for the funeral and burial. Embalming the body is permitted by a local funeral home, who then turns over the body to the family. The funeral includes viewing of the body, and a funeral service. Pallbearers are also responsible for the viewing and transportation to the grave site, which is with a horse and buggy.
Coffins are made of plain wood with no embellishments. There is a simple stone marking the grave, with no statues, flowers, wreaths or other accoutrements. In some of the more conservative Old Order Amish, a simple wood marker with the deceased’s initials identifies the gravesite. Following the burial, a feast takes place, typically in someone’s barn. For a year following the funeral, the community visits the family weekly, on a Sunday.
17TH AND 18TH CENTURY AMERICA
As the colonies expanded and population grew, funerals became more lavish and as public displays of wealth, depending on the deceased. Sending funeral invitations along with a pair of gloves was common practice among those of prominence and wealth. Families of the deceased also presented gold rings to family, friends, mourners, and the minister.
People often hung black bunting on mirrors, windows and even horses’ backs.
For the funeral of Waitstill Winthrop, the grandson of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, his funeral bill came to one-fifth of his estate. Eventually these gift exchanges became a burden, particularly to widows and children who had to bear the expense.
The extravagant behavior and spending led to the passing of laws regulating exorbitant funeral expenses, such as gift exchanges, food, and liquor; imposing large fines for those who flouted the law. These colonial rituals eventually led to laws prohibiting excessive funeral expenses.
THE 19TH CENTURY
Due to the increase in towns and cities, coffin makers’ duties expanded to include ‘death care,’ which included offering burial and mourning clothing, body preparation, and funeral coordination, thereby ‘undertaking’ the process.
THE VICTORIAN ERA IN AMERICA 1820-1914
Queen Victoria’s practices following Prince Albert’s death in 1861 influenced funeral customs of many countries, including the United States.
Practices dictated that widows were not to be seen in public unless it was to attend church; rules for widowers were less stringent as societal norms dictated they should remarry.
Although people were spiritual and church-goers, superstitions surrounding death were rampant. For example:
- People carried the deceased out of the home feet first so they couldn’t look back and call someone to follow them.
- Wealthier families had a ‘death’ door to escort the body, as it was considered bad luck to remove the body through the same door as used by the living.
- Mirrors were covered until after funeral; people feared the deceased’s image could become captured in the glass.
- To ward off bad luck, all clocks were stopped at the time of death.
- Family photographs were turned faced down to protect people from being possessed by the deceased.
And while medical advances progressed during the Victorian Era, there was a lack of available corpses for medical research. Grave robbers were prevalent and concerning to the deceased’s families. Doctors also did not have a clear understanding of medical conditions and oftentimes declared someone dead when he or she was in a coma.
According to the article “8 Intriguing Funeral Customs from the Victoria Era”:
To combat grave robbers and premature burial due to lack of medical understanding, the Victorians put a few safeguards into place. Some families buried a loved one with a rope in their hand, attached to a bell outside the grave. If the person in the grave awoke, they could ring the bell, signaling their need for help. Other burial options included bricking over a grave, covering it with a protective gate, or purchasing a coffin with a series of tubes and mirrors to allow the gravediggers to peer inside for movement.
The Civil War’s total death toll has been estimated between 620,000 and 750,000 soldiers, many attributed to disease rather than dying on the battlefield. This was the first time in American history where many were dying away from home, and families wanted to properly bury their loved ones. However, the long train ride home and sweltering heat created a conundrum in preserving the deceased.
Enter Dr. Thomas Holmes, considered the father of modern embalming. Prior to his research and implementation of his methods, embalming involved the use of arsenic, mercury, and zinc-based compounds, which threatened the health of those performing the task. Holmes had experimented with arterial embalming, and he brought his embalming method to the Union Army during the Civil War. The Confederate Army declined the use of this type of embalming.
While other surgeons jumped on the embalming bandwagon, the competition created fees for their services. Finally, due to higher and higher rates, the War Department issued “General Order 39, an Order Concerning Embalmers,” which required all practitioners to have a special license and establish a price scale.
Embalming became a common practice following the death of President Lincoln, as government officials decided to take his body on a two-week procession from Washington, D.C. to Springfield, IL. In fact, his body was re-embalmed during every stop on the trip to ensure a lifelike appearance.
In 1882, undertakers formed the National Funeral Directors’ Association and the funeral industry was born. In 1894, Virginia became the first state to pass embalmment laws; by 1900, 24 states enacted similar laws. In 1882, the Clarke School in Ohio became the first mortuary school in the country, providing formal training and standardized practices.
According to the 1890 Census, nearly 10,000 people reported the occupation of “undertaker” (in the 1900 Census, that number rose to roughly 16,000). Hence, these professionals set the stage for the creation of the modern funeral industry.
THE 20TH CENTURY
Family-owned funeral homes became the norm in the early 1900s. World War I and the Great Depression were responsible for a high number of deaths.
In the early 1900s, everyone wore black as a sign of mourning, and funerals were generally held in a church; with songs and a sermon or short message. Flowers were sent to the funeral to show respect (and cover odors), and death notices were published in newspapers.
In 1918, due to the Spanish Flu pandemic, the government prohibited public gatherings, including funerals and wakes. Flu victims had to be buried within 24 hours of death to prevent the spread of disease. Rather than a public event, funerals became more private affairs, confined to families.
In 1984, senate hearings led to the Federal Trade Commission’s Bureau of Consumer Protection investigating perceived unethical practices in the funeral industry. Thus, the Funeral Rule was introduced, requiring itemized lists of prices and descriptions of funeral services.
MODERN DAY FUNERAL TRADITIONS
Funerals/Memorials
Modern funerals or memorial services now reflect the populations’ diversity, driven by religious, cultural, and personal beliefs. More people are choosing memorial services, which celebrate and reflect the deceased in a more personal way.
One way to personalize a service is to have a celebration of life, which may or may not take place in the traditional setting. The content can include videos, sharing and music. The deceased’s remains may or may not be present.
For those who prefer a non-religious or secular funeral service, a celebrant may be a suitable option. A celebrant is a trained professional who specializes in leading non-religious or secular ceremonies, including funerals. Celebrants work closely with the family of the deceased to create a personalized and meaningful service that reflects their beliefs, values, and wishes. They can provide guidance and support to those who may not have a particular religious affiliation but still want to commemorate the life of their loved one in a significant and meaningful way. Celebrants can also offer flexibility and creativity in designing the service, incorporating music, poetry, and other elements that reflect the personality and interests of the deceased. It’s important to note that while civil celebrants may not be able to provide the same level of religious guidance and support as a religious leader, they can still provide a comforting and dignified farewell for the deceased.
Religious beliefs often play a crucial role in the decision-making process. For instance, Orthodox Judaism and Islam traditionally prohibit cremation, while Hinduism and Buddhism typically prefer it. The Catholic Church allows cremation, but with the stipulation that the ashes must be kept in a sacred place, such as a cemetery, and not scattered or kept at home. In the United States, traditional burial has been the norm, but cremation has become increasingly more common in recent years, reflecting a shift in societal values and norms.
Funeral/Memorials Dress Codes
Black is still an acceptable choice; however in honor of the deceased, mourners also wear colorful clothing and more casual attire. For example, family members may request attendees wear the deceased’s favorite sports team’s colors, or apparel featuring the deceased’s favorite charity, hobby or place of business.
Regardless of the religious, ethnic or cultural norms, it is important to respect the beliefs and traditions of the deceased and family.
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Resources
Aguero, Mattie. Library of Congress Blogs. “Evolution of American Funerary Customs and Laws,” Sept. 28, 2022.Retrieved 09-12-2024: https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2022/09/evolution-of-american-funerary-customs-and-laws
Rostad, Curtis. 2001. Barton Funeral Seattle, Washington. “History of the Funeral,” Retrieved 9-12-2024: https://bartonfuneral.com/funeral-basics/history-of-funerals/
Rylands, Traci. “Adventures in Cemetery Hopping: The Strange Case of Dr. Thomas Holmes,” June 7, 2013. Retrieved 09-12-2024: https://adventuresincemeteryhopping.com/2013/06/07/the-strange-case-of-dr-thomas-holmes/
Wolf, Casey. “Materials: Mori: The Materials of Mourning,” The University of Central Florida, Aug. 15, 2018. Retrieved 09-11-2024: https://projects.cah.ucf.edu/economyofgoods/index.php/2018/08/15/momentos-mori-the-materials-of-mourning/
New York Historical Society Museum and Library.Women & The American Story: Mourning Clothing. Retrieved 09-11-2024: https://wams.nyhistory.org/a-nation-divided/reconstruction/mourning-clothing/
“An Insider’s View at Amish Burial Practices.” Retrieved 09-13-2024: https://weavermemorials.com/amish-burial-practices/
